{"id":1639,"date":"2024-01-28T14:03:02","date_gmt":"2024-01-28T22:03:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/alteritas.net\/alteritas\/?p=1639"},"modified":"2024-01-28T14:03:02","modified_gmt":"2024-01-28T22:03:02","slug":"notes-to-neuroscience-for-dummies","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/alteritas.net\/alteritas\/2024\/01\/28\/notes-to-neuroscience-for-dummies\/","title":{"rendered":"Notes to Neuroscience For Dummies"},"content":{"rendered":"
Neuroscience For Dummies<\/div>\n
Amthor, Frank<\/div>\n
Citation (Chicago Style): Amthor, Frank. Neuroscience For Dummies<\/i>. Wiley, 2023. Kindle edition.<\/div>\n
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Copyright<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Page iv \u00b7 Location 8<\/div>\n
Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, www.wiley.com Copyright \u00a9 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey<\/div>\n
Part 1: Introducing the Nervous System<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Understanding the Evolution of the Nervous System > Page 9 \u00b7 Location 646<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Understanding the Evolution of the Nervous System > Page 10 \u00b7 Location 668<\/div>\n
The human brain consumes about 20 percent of the body\u2019s metabolism despite being only about 5 percent of body weight.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Revolutionizing the Future: Advancements in Various Fields > Page 21 \u00b7 Location 936<\/div>\n
Humans are now beginning to augment ourselves.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 28 \u00b7 Location 1052<\/div>\n
Most of the volume of the brain is axonal wiring, not cells.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 28 \u00b7 Location 1063<\/div>\n
the corpus callosum, which contains 200 million fibers.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 30 \u00b7 Location 1093<\/div>\n
This \u201cmotor map\u201d (called a homunculus)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 31 \u00b7 Location 1123<\/div>\n
Primates, on the other hand, have complex male and female hierarchies and may hatch plots against each other that span years of planning.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 32 \u00b7 Location 1137<\/div>\n
The major sensory inputs from the skin (touch, temperature, and pain receptors) relay through the thalamus to the gyrus just posterior to the central fissure, where a map of the skin exists.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 32 \u00b7 Location 1140<\/div>\n
The skin homunculus map closely resembles the primary motor cortex map.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 32 \u00b7 Location 1153<\/div>\n
The fact that the visual system gets an entire lobe for processing emphasizes the importance of high visual acuity and processing among our senses.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 34 \u00b7 Location 1172<\/div>\n
The root of the word thalamus comes from a Greek word (tholos) related to the entrance room to a building, so you can think of the thalamus as the gateway to the cortex.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 34 \u00b7 Location 1175<\/div>\n
So, what does the thalamus do, exactly? It functions like a command center that controls what information goes between different parts of the neocortex and the rest of the brain.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 34 \u00b7 Location 1189<\/div>\n
Memory modifies behavior in such animals via what we think of as emotions.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 35 \u00b7 Location 1200<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 35 \u00b7 Location 1205<\/div>\n
one brain structure within this system, the hippocampus, is now known to have a crucial function in the creation of memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 35 \u00b7 Location 1212<\/div>\n
primarily involved with emotional processing, the amygdala.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 36 \u00b7 Location 1230<\/div>\n
the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia consist of five major nuclei: the caudate, putamen, globus palladus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 37 \u00b7 Location 1245<\/div>\n
Parkinson\u2019s disease, which is caused by the death of dopaminergic neurons in this nucleus. Without these neurons, initiating voluntary movement or changing an ongoing movement sequence becomes difficult.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 38 \u00b7 Location 1262<\/div>\n
The major visual area in the midbrain is the superior colliculus, which controls eye movements called saccades.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 38 \u00b7 Location 1264<\/div>\n
(called the tectum in frogs and other non-mammals)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 38 \u00b7 Location 1281<\/div>\n
The reticular formation is not so much a defined structure as it is a continuous network that extends through and interacts with numerous brain areas.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Brain and Its Parts > Page 39 \u00b7 Location 1293<\/div>\n
trigeminal cranial nerve V.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – How We Know What We Know about Neural Activity > Page 48 \u00b7 Location 1491<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 51 \u00b7 Location 1536<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 52 \u00b7 Location 1554<\/div>\n
cytoplasm<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 53 \u00b7 Location 1580<\/div>\n
dendrites receive inputs<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 53 \u00b7 Location 1581<\/div>\n
axon sends the output of the cell to other cells.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 54 \u00b7 Location 1596<\/div>\n
learning. Learning occurs when experiences modify the strength and identity of the interconnections between neurons and thus create memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 54 \u00b7 Location 1603<\/div>\n
electrical pulses, called spikes,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 54 \u00b7 Location 1610<\/div>\n
synaptic cleft.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 55 \u00b7 Location 1627<\/div>\n
Motor neurons output their neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) onto muscle cells that contract when receptors in the muscle cells receive it. The control of voluntary striated muscle generally occurs after the brain has done a<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 55 \u00b7 Location 1636<\/div>\n
Postsynaptic receptor channels that are activated by neurotransmitters released by a presynaptic neuron are generally referred to as ligand-gated ion channels.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 57 \u00b7 Location 1659<\/div>\n
neurotransmitter molecules.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 57 \u00b7 Location 1664<\/div>\n
All voluntary muscle contractions are caused by the release of acetylcholine by motor neurons onto muscle cells.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 57 \u00b7 Location 1667<\/div>\n
fast inhibitory neurotransmitters gamma amino butyric acid (GABA)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 57 \u00b7 Location 1670<\/div>\n
Slow neuromodulators that include both excitatory and inhibitory types: Most of the fast neurotransmitters are amino acids (other than acetylcholine). Modulating neurotransmitters include biogenic amines, such as the catecholamines (dopamine,<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 3: Understanding How Neurons Work > Page 58 \u00b7 Location 1680<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – How Shocking! Neurons as Electrical Signaling Devices > Page 58 \u00b7 Location 1689<\/div>\n
cation is positively charged (attracted to a negative cathode); an anion is negatively charged (attracted to a positive anode).<\/div>\n
Bookmark – How Shocking! Neurons as Electrical Signaling Devices > Page 58 \u00b7 Location 1691<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Non-neuronal Cells: Glial Cells > Page 65 \u00b7 Location 1821<\/div>\n
astrocyte<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Non-neuronal Cells: Glial Cells > Page 65 \u00b7 Location 1823<\/div>\n
cancer treatment protocols effectively involve using toxic chemicals and radiation to wipe out the vast majority of dividing cancer cells, hoping the immune system can mop up the last few percent.<\/div>\n
Part 2: Translating the Internal and External Worlds through Your Senses<\/div>\n
Bookmark – How Do You Feel? The Lowdown on the Skin and Its Sensory Neurons > Page 74 \u00b7 Location 1994<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Skin Receptors, Local Spinal Circuits, and Projections to the Brain > Page 81 \u00b7 Location 2125<\/div>\n
because some neural projections from the face invade the cortical area once stimulated by the limb and cause sensations to be perceived as being located in the limb, even when the limb is gone. Receptor densities<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Understanding the Complex Aspects of Pain > Page 82 \u00b7 Location 2159<\/div>\n
endorphins (a term which is an abbreviation of endogenous morphines).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Understanding the Complex Aspects of Pain > Page 83 \u00b7 Location 2170<\/div>\n
it turns out that the drug naloxone not only reduces the effects of opioids, such as heroin, but it also reduces the placebo effect. What this means is that the placebo effect isn\u2019t just psychological; it actually has a physiological component, involving the cognitive stimulation, from belief, of the body\u2019s internal endorphin production that objectively and measurably reduces pain by binding the endorphin receptors.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Eyes Have It: A Quick Glance at Your Eyes > Page 89 \u00b7 Location 2272<\/div>\n
(red, green, and blue).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – From the Eyes to the Vision Centers of the Brain > Page 103 \u00b7 Location 2567<\/div>\n
apraxis, the inability to skillfully execute tasks requiring visual guidance.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Impaired Vision and Visual Illusions > Page 106 \u00b7 Location 2634<\/div>\n
Unlike the preceding retinopathies, glaucoma involves a primary death of retinal ganglion cells, most commonly due to inherited excessive pressure within the eye. One glaucoma subtype, closed-angle glaucoma, is treatable with laser surgery. The other form, open-angle glaucoma, can often be controlled with medication.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Impaired Vision and Visual Illusions > Page 106 \u00b7 Location 2642<\/div>\n
Amblyopia,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Ear: Capturing and Decoding Sound Waves > Page 113 \u00b7 Location 2776<\/div>\n
they also are apparently derived evolutionarily from motor type cilia, such as used by some single-celled organisms to move.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making Sense of Sounds: Central Auditory Projections > Page 118 \u00b7 Location 2873<\/div>\n
of attended auditory input<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making Sense of Sounds: Central Auditory Projections > Page 118 \u00b7 Location 2873<\/div>\n
deliberately try to hear\u2014is mediated in multiple brain areas that<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making Sense of Sounds: Central Auditory Projections > Page 121 \u00b7 Location 2925<\/div>\n
22 results in an inability to process prosody in language\u2014the changes in tonality and rhythm\u2014that conveys meaning. Patients with this damage, for example, have trouble distinguishing sarcastic versus questioning versus other tones of voice, and in particular, don\u2019t \u201cget\u201d jokes and other forms of humor.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making Sense of Sounds: Central Auditory Projections > Page 121 \u00b7 Location 2929<\/div>\n
However, its processing relies more on the right than the left side of the brain, indicated by the fact that most people recognize melodies better with their left ear (right brain).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – I Can\u2019t Hear You: Deafness and Tinnitus > Page 124 \u00b7 Location 2999<\/div>\n
age-related decline in high frequency sensitivity (presbycusis, which occurs in almost everyone, particularly males),<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 7: Odors and Taste > Page 127 \u00b7 Location 3029<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – What\u2019s That Smell? > Page 132 \u00b7 Location 3137<\/div>\n
This pathway is concerned with memory associations of very universal smells such as something rotting, rather than sophisticated smells such as hazelnut coffee and dark chocolate, which require higher order cortical processing to establish their identity prior to being stored in memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Having Good Taste > Page 137 \u00b7 Location 3236<\/div>\n
trigeminal<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Lacking Taste and Smelling Badly > Page 142 \u00b7 Location 3347<\/div>\n
alliesthesia (\u201c changed taste\u201d), and it\u2019s a brain mechanism that indicates you\u2019re getting full. The mechanism for<\/div>\n
Part 3: Moving Right Along: Motor Systems<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 8: Movement Basics > Page 145 \u00b7 Location 3369<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Identifying Types of Movement > Page 147 \u00b7 Location 3420<\/div>\n
Proprioception<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Identifying Types of Movement > Page 147 \u00b7 Location 3420<\/div>\n
kinesthesis<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Identifying Types of Movement > Page 148 \u00b7 Location 3446<\/div>\n
Some researchers have argued that language itself, the ultimate separator of humans from animals, evolved literally hand in hand with manual dexterity. This argument suggests that the left side of the brain regions that enable language production also makes most of us right-handed for motion sequence production.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Pulling the Load: Muscle Cells and Their Action Potentials > Page 153 \u00b7 Location 3565<\/div>\n
cells. The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is an excitatory ionotropic receptor (refer to Chapter 3).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Pulling the Load: Muscle Cells and Their Action Potentials > Page 154 \u00b7 Location 3578<\/div>\n
cholinesterases)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Pulling the Load: Muscle Cells and Their Action Potentials > Page 154 \u00b7 Location 3587<\/div>\n
myosin myofilaments<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Pulling the Load: Muscle Cells and Their Action Potentials > Page 154 \u00b7 Location 3590<\/div>\n
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) as an energy source. ATP is the universal energy \u201ccurrency\u201d within cells for conducting<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Muscle and Muscle Motor Neuron Disorders > Page 155 \u00b7 Location 3605<\/div>\n
Myasthenia gravis<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Muscle and Muscle Motor Neuron Disorders > Page 156 \u00b7 Location 3616<\/div>\n
Motor neuron viral diseases: Rabies and polio<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Muscle and Muscle Motor Neuron Disorders > Page 157 \u00b7 Location 3639<\/div>\n
One focus is based on the fact that the myelin wrapping around peripheral nerves is from cells called Schwann cells, but the myelin wrapping around central nervous system axons is from cells called oligodendrocytes.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Withdrawal Reflex: An Open-Loop Response > Page 160 \u00b7 Location 3672<\/div>\n
The beginning of the withdrawal reflex can also be described as being ballistic, in the sense that once launched, its trajectory is not controlled<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Hold Your Position! Closed-Loop Reflexes > Page 163 \u00b7 Location 3744<\/div>\n
Patients with tremor, such as Parkinson\u2019s, have defective overshoot control systems so their limbs oscillate at what should have been the endpoint of a planned movement.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Modulating Reflexes: Balance and Locomotion > Page 165 \u00b7 Location 3788<\/div>\n
The basics of locomotion<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Modulating Reflexes: Balance and Locomotion > Page 166 \u00b7 Location 3813<\/div>\n
central<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Modulating Reflexes: Balance and Locomotion > Page 166 \u00b7 Location 3813<\/div>\n
pattern generator, which alternates the two legs and two arms with each<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Correcting Errors without Feedback: The Cerebellum > Page 167 \u00b7 Location 3829<\/div>\n
So the question is, how does repetition make us better at doing something?<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 10: Planning and Executing Actions > Page 174 \u00b7 Location 3923<\/div>\n
Does consciousness emerge from just having a large enough brain? Or is consciousness not real, not a cause of anything, but a result, an illusion that goes along for the ride with complex brain activity, what some philosophers call an epiphenomenon? This chapter considers some of the more relevant data.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making the Move from Reflexes to Conscious or Goal-Generated Action > Page 175 \u00b7 Location 3955<\/div>\n
an orderly map, referred to as the motor homunculus (this is very similar to the sensory homunculus in the primary somatosensory area;<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making the Move from Reflexes to Conscious or Goal-Generated Action > Page 178 \u00b7 Location 4015<\/div>\n
items that humans can hold in memory (which memory researchers call chunks)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making the Move from Reflexes to Conscious or Goal-Generated Action > Page 178 \u00b7 Location 4028<\/div>\n
Selection: How the basal ganglia function as a circuit is one of the least understood areas of system neuroscience, despite their importance in diseases such as Parkinson\u2019s<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making the Move from Reflexes to Conscious or Goal-Generated Action > Page 179 \u00b7 Location 4046<\/div>\n
the basal ganglia structures called the caudate and putamen, which together are referred to as the striatum. The striatum projects to three interconnected nuclei within the core of the basal ganglia, called the globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, and substantia nigra (in the midbrain). The output of these three nuclei, particularly the globus pallidus, inhibits motor areas through the thalamus.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making the Move from Reflexes to Conscious or Goal-Generated Action > Page 180 \u00b7 Location 4059<\/div>\n
our apparent multitasking is really a case of cyclic time sharing.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Where Are the Free Will Neurons? > Page 184 \u00b7 Location 4125<\/div>\n
Here\u2019s what the data very reliably showed: Deflections of the EEG traces occurred typically one-half second before the subjects indicated they\u2019d decided to move their hands (this deflection is typically now called a readiness potential,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Where Are the Free Will Neurons? > Page 185 \u00b7 Location 4162<\/div>\n
abnormalities in the frontal lobe, particularly the orbitofrontal cortex, seem to reduce a person\u2019s capacity to make wise choices without reducing the capacity to do the mental calculation of the costs and benefits of the choices.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Discovering New (and Strange) Neurons > Page 186 \u00b7 Location 4178<\/div>\n
Mirror neurons are visual neurons that fire not only when an animal, such as a monkey, is performing a task requiring visual feedback, but also when the monkey observes a human (or presumably another monkey) performing the same task.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – When the Wheels Come Off: Motor Disorders > Page 190 \u00b7 Location 4269<\/div>\n
L-dopa treatments eventually cease working because the cells that convert L-dopa to dopamine cease working or die.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – When the Wheels Come Off: Motor Disorders > Page 190 \u00b7 Location 4271<\/div>\n
deep brain stimulation (DBS).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 11: Unconscious Actions with Big Implications > Page 191 \u00b7 Location 4294<\/div>\n
homeostasis, the active maintenance of various aspects of the internal state of our bodies.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Working behind the Scenes: The Autonomic Nervous System > Page 192 \u00b7 Location 4310<\/div>\n
The autonomic nervous system is actually a dual system because it has two components, called the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches, which act in opposition to each other.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Sweet Dreams: Sleep and Circadian Rhythms > Page 200 \u00b7 Location 4490<\/div>\n
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which means \u201cnucleus above the chiasm.\u201d Although the activity of these cells controls the overall circadian rhythm in humans and all other vertebrates, circadian cells also exist in primitive organisms and circadian rhythms exist in single-celled entities such as algae.<\/div>\n
Part 4: Intelligence: The Thinking Brain and Consciousness<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Defining Intelligence > Page 214 \u00b7 Location 4753<\/div>\n
learning and its result, memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Intelligence about Emotions > Page 226 \u00b7 Location 5008<\/div>\n
Researchers conjecture that memory for navigation may have been the original evolutionary function of<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Intelligence about Emotions > Page 226 \u00b7 Location 5009<\/div>\n
the hippocampus, after which it became involved in other kinds of memory, including particularly episodic memory<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Intelligence about Emotions > Page 226 \u00b7 Location 5023<\/div>\n
Stroop task,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Understanding Consciousness > Page 229 \u00b7 Location 5081<\/div>\n
(the \u201csingularity\u201d) should be reached around 2030,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Understanding Consciousness > Page 229 \u00b7 Location 5091<\/div>\n
consciousness as \u201cthe remembered present.\u201d<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Understanding Consciousness > Page 233 \u00b7 Location 5174<\/div>\n
few of us remember anything from our lives before the age of 2 is suggested to result from the profound reorganization of our brains that occurs after we learn language,<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 13: How the Brain Processes Thoughts > Page 239 \u00b7 Location 5291<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 13: How the Brain Processes Thoughts > Page 240 \u00b7 Location 5303<\/div>\n
whether it enables complex functions like language and consciousness simply because it has crossed some size threshold, or whether its structure and organization is somehow unique.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – All about the Neocortex > Page 245 \u00b7 Location 5399<\/div>\n
The small \u201ccommunities\u201d in the cortex are called minicolumns.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – All about the Neocortex > Page 245 \u00b7 Location 5403<\/div>\n
passing through six synapses or less, the six degrees of separation.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling the Content of Thought: Sensory Pathways and Hierarchies > Page 248 \u00b7 Location 5475<\/div>\n
Past stimuli have left their trace in memory not only as recallable objects and events, but also as paths in the brain through which current stimuli are processed. Stimuli received by the senses are transformed into a universal neural currency of action potentials bombarding the thalamus.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling the Content of Thought: Sensory Pathways and Hierarchies > Page 251 \u00b7 Location 5540<\/div>\n
areas is a central executive processing nucleus within the thalamus itself called the pulvinar.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling the Content of Thought: Sensory Pathways and Hierarchies > Page 252 \u00b7 Location 5558<\/div>\n
Remembering involves activation of many of the same brain structures (visual, auditory, and somatosensory cortices) that processed the original sensory input, organized or activated by the hippocampus,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling the Content of Thought: Sensory Pathways and Hierarchies > Page 252 \u00b7 Location 5559<\/div>\n
and represented in the firing of working memory neurons in the lateral prefrontal cortex.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Conquering: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 253 \u00b7 Location 5572<\/div>\n
Beyond this basic crossed-innervation scheme, the two sides appear to have different styles of processing that are particularly evident in some high-level cognitive tasks. These include a left-side specialization for grammatical aspects of language and a right side specialization for holistic aspects of visuo-spatial processing.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Conquering: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 253 \u00b7 Location 5587<\/div>\n
In virtually all right-handers and about half of left-handers, language depends far more on structures in the left hemisphere than the right (the homologous areas in the right hemisphere have far weaker roles in the same functions).<\/div>\n
Highlight(orange<\/span>) – Dividing and Conquering: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 254 \u00b7 Location 5597<\/div>\n
stylistic<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Conquering: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 254 \u00b7 Location 5597<\/div>\n
manners of processing by the two hemispheres: The left brain tends to be sequential and rule-based, whereas the right brain tends to do pattern matching.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Conquering: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 254 \u00b7 Location 5601<\/div>\n
Wernicke\u2019s area and Broca\u2019s area.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Conquering: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 254 \u00b7 Location 5611<\/div>\n
If you heard Wernicke\u2019s aphasics speak in a language you did not know, you might have difficulty discerning that there was anything wrong.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Conquering: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 255 \u00b7 Location 5630<\/div>\n
The right fusiform face area, a very anterior and medial part of the visual identity processing stream in the infero-temporal cortex, is more important for face recognition than the equivalent area on the left.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Where Consciousness Resides > Page 256 \u00b7 Location 5641<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Where Consciousness Resides > Page 258 \u00b7 Location 5666<\/div>\n
According to this idea, humans are unique in that we have a system in the sequential, rule-based left side of the brain that constantly tries to make sense of the world by using language. This left side interpreter is constantly making up a verbal story about reality that includes salient events and the role of the person and their actions in those events.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Where Consciousness Resides > Page 258 \u00b7 Location 5696<\/div>\n
Does a car simulate a person walking?<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 14: The Executive Brain > Page 263 \u00b7 Location 5772<\/div>\n
Evolution has occurred in the mammalian brain mostly by adding the neocortex to ancestral structures. This is something like the addition of numerous microcomputers and controllers to a modern car engine.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 14: The Executive Brain > Page 266 \u00b7 Location 5852<\/div>\n
Despite the fact that humans have much larger brains than many other animals, the capacity of seven short-term memory items doesn\u2019t appear to be much greater than that of many other animals, such as crows!<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 14: The Executive Brain > Page 268 \u00b7 Location 5897<\/div>\n
Lateral prefrontal damage is associated with a phenomenon called perseveration.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 14: The Executive Brain > Page 269 \u00b7 Location 5913<\/div>\n
Wise people with intact frontal lobes make this change in priorities; teenagers with not yet fully developed frontal lobe myelination, and people with compromised frontal lobe function, often do not.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 14: The Executive Brain > Page 270 \u00b7 Location 5935<\/div>\n
On the other hand, intuition can lead to stereotypes and rigidity in behavior.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 14: The Executive Brain > Page 271 \u00b7 Location 5955<\/div>\n
The orbitofrontal cortex informs us when we contemplate socially<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 14: The Executive Brain > Page 271 \u00b7 Location 5955<\/div>\n
embarrassing actions by provoking feelings of fear and embarrassment through the action of the autonomic nervous system.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 14: The Executive Brain > Page 271 \u00b7 Location 5962<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Are We There Yet? The Anterior Cingulate Cortex > Page 272 \u00b7 Location 5969<\/div>\n
practiced sequences to be executed with higher precision and speed than is possible under explicit conscious control. Because such sequences<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Are We There Yet? The Anterior Cingulate Cortex > Page 272 \u00b7 Location 5970<\/div>\n
are executed faster than they can be consciously controlled, they are executed with only high level awareness of their progress, without knowledge of the motor details.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Are We There Yet? The Anterior Cingulate Cortex > Page 273 \u00b7 Location 5988<\/div>\n
(called voxels)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Are We There Yet? The Anterior Cingulate Cortex > Page 273 \u00b7 Location 5995<\/div>\n
The anterior cingulate is activated when you do things that are difficult or novel, when you make errors, or when you must overcome habitual behavior patterns. It is at the center of a supervisory control system that mediates goal selection<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Are We There Yet? The Anterior Cingulate Cortex > Page 274 \u00b7 Location 6022<\/div>\n
In normal human development, the frontal lobes mature last. For example, myelination of axons is not complete in the frontal lobes until late adolescence.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Are We There Yet? The Anterior Cingulate Cortex > Page 274 \u00b7 Location 6025<\/div>\n
Adolescence is a developmental period notoriously characterized by high raw intelligence but poor judgment typical of inadequate frontal lobe function. One of the oft-stated goals of education is to instill enough good habits and rational thinking capabilities to get adolescents through adolescence without doing harm to themselves or others.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 15: Learning and Memory > Page 275 \u00b7 Location 6045<\/div>\n
During embryonic growth and the first years of life, the human brain develops by growing and changing its large-scale organization. Starting during early development but continuing throughout later life, nervous system activity from experience causes changes in synaptic strengths that mediate changes in behavior.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Learning and Memory: One More Way to Adapt to the Environment > Page 276 \u00b7 Location 6056<\/div>\n
at least three kinds of adaptation to the environment are possible: evolutionary adaptation, developmental adaptation, and classical learning.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Learning and Memory: One More Way to Adapt to the Environment > Page 277 \u00b7 Location 6096<\/div>\n
A crucial brain area for consolidating learning from short-to long-term memory is the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Sending More or Fewer Signals: Adaptation versus Facilitation > Page 278 \u00b7 Location 6103<\/div>\n
There are two low-order mechanisms by which neural responses change: adaptation (or habituation in the case of repeated stimuli) and facilitation (sensitization in the case of repeated stimuli):<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Exploring What Happens during Learning: Changing Synapses > Page 284 \u00b7 Location 6227<\/div>\n
neural circuits also appear to operate like analog computers, so the brain is a mixture of both).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Exploring What Happens during Learning: Changing Synapses > Page 284 \u00b7 Location 6241<\/div>\n
How does a synapse change its strength? What and where are these synapses?<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Exploring What Happens during Learning: Changing Synapses > Page 284 \u00b7 Location 6242<\/div>\n
What signal controls this change that is associated with learning?<\/div>\n
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glutamate. However, unlike most ligand-(neurotransmitter-binding) activated receptors, the NMDA receptor is blocked by a magnesium ion in the mouth of the pore when the neuron is at its normal resting potential with the inside about\u201356 millivolts with respect to the outside extracellular fluid. In this case, binding glutamate from a presynaptic terminal is not sufficient to open the NMDA ion channel. The magnesium ion is removed, however, if an adjacent non-NMDA glutamate ion channel (typically those called AMPA and kainate channels) is also activated and depolarizes the neural<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Exploring What Happens during Learning: Changing Synapses > Page 287 \u00b7 Location 6299<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Exploring What Happens during Learning: Changing Synapses > Page 288 \u00b7 Location 6305<\/div>\n
called long-term potentiation. (There is also long-term depression, which balances things out so that all synapses do not become stronger only.)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 289 \u00b7 Location 6322<\/div>\n
Cognitive neuroscience seeks to locate where in the brain these memories exist and what processes they use. The hippocampus, as it turns out, is crucial for moving memory from the short-term form to the long-term.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 289 \u00b7 Location 6332<\/div>\n
Short-term memory exists in two places, the lateral prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 290 \u00b7 Location 6365<\/div>\n
coincidence detector for that thing. So seeing a green frog activates the cortical areas for green and frog, which activates the hippocampal green frog cell whose synapses get strengthened.<\/div>\n
Highlight(pink<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 292 \u00b7 Location 6392<\/div>\n
This means you can re-create in your cortex a version of the pattern of activity that occurred when you actually experienced something.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 292 \u00b7 Location 6392<\/div>\n
When you continue to think about, or rehearse, the memory of some experience, the activity reverberates between hippocampus and cortex. If you rehearse enough (which happens during REM sleep, particularly), modifiable synapses in the cortex are changed so that the cortex itself can reproduce the neural activity associated with an experience.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 293 \u00b7 Location 6397<\/div>\n
The hippocampus is a scratchpad for maintaining rehearsal to form the long-term memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 293 \u00b7 Location 6407<\/div>\n
their hippocampi played back the correct maze traversal sequence by activating, in sequence,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 293 \u00b7 Location 6408<\/div>\n
playback occurred at about seven times the actual speed that the rats ran the mazes. If the rats were prevented from having REM sleep, they did not consolidate the day\u2019s training well and did not learn the mazes as well.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 294 \u00b7 Location 6422<\/div>\n
The name for contextual memory is episodic memory, that is, memory associated with an event or episode. General memory about facts is called semantic memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 294 \u00b7 Location 6433<\/div>\n
Remember also that the projections from neocortex to hippocampus include both low (realistic, detailed) and high<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Role of the Hippocampus in Learning and Memory > Page 294 \u00b7 Location 6434<\/div>\n
(abstract) meaning associated levels, so that the context for any memory can be quite elaborate and specific.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Losing Your Memory: Forgetting, Amnesia, and Other Disorders > Page 295 \u00b7 Location 6446<\/div>\n
too weak (the synapses are not sufficiently strengthened)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Losing Your Memory: Forgetting, Amnesia, and Other Disorders > Page 295 \u00b7 Location 6453<\/div>\n
scuba divers who learned a list of words underwater and then were asked to recall the terms later, both on the surface and underwater. The results? The underwater performance was better.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Losing Your Memory: Forgetting, Amnesia, and Other Disorders > Page 295 \u00b7 Location 6462<\/div>\n
soap opera syndrome of temporary memory loss, known clinically as transient global amnesia (TGA).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Losing Your Memory: Forgetting, Amnesia, and Other Disorders > Page 295 \u00b7 Location 6464<\/div>\n
transient ischemia,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting Brainier: Improving Your Learning > Page 297 \u00b7 Location 6491<\/div>\n
Learning has a lifespan trajectory. It\u2019s easy when you\u2019re very young, difficult after adolescence, and very hard for most elderly. We can\u2019t do much about the process of aging other than taking care of ourselves, but we can maintain and even increase the ability to learn by engaging in intellectually challenging activities.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting Brainier: Improving Your Learning > Page 297 \u00b7 Location 6502<\/div>\n
Cognitive dysfunctions such as dyslexia and dysgraphia are not believed by most scientists to be based on any specific dysfunction in learning mechanisms. Rather, they are almost certainly the result of a dysfunction in some aspect of the central representation of the relevant sensory input that becomes evident during learning.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting Brainier: Improving Your Learning > Page 297 \u00b7 Location 6511<\/div>\n
enough time for the hippocampal-cortex reverberation system to consolidate learning over several evenings of sleep.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting Brainier: Improving Your Learning > Page 298 \u00b7 Location 6526<\/div>\n
Failure is a signal to change synaptic weights, while success means that some subset should be enhanced.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting Brainier: Improving Your Learning > Page 298 \u00b7 Location 6530<\/div>\n
One of the functions of the dopamine system in the brain is to provide reward\/ punishment feedback for adapting the brain to activities in which you are engaged.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 16: Developing and Modifying Brain Circuits: Plasticity > Page 299 \u00b7 Location 6546<\/div>\n
Highlight(pink<\/span>) – Chapter 16: Developing and Modifying Brain Circuits: Plasticity > Page 299 \u00b7 Location 6549<\/div>\n
glial<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 16: Developing and Modifying Brain Circuits: Plasticity > Page 300 \u00b7 Location 6556<\/div>\n
genome codes for rules by which several hundred brain areas will come into existence. A few other rules specify the approximate location of these areas, about how large they are, and about what kinds of connections they will have. This constitutes a general program for development.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developing from Conception > Page 303 \u00b7 Location 6635<\/div>\n
This developmental fine tuning is called plasticity.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developing from Conception > Page 303 \u00b7 Location 6640<\/div>\n
cell type, such as a pyramidal cell. This migrating cell is called a migratory precursor cell.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Developing from Conception > Page 304 \u00b7 Location 6652<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developing from Conception > Page 304 \u00b7 Location 6655<\/div>\n
are pluripotent stem cells, meaning that they can differentiate into any cell type. As development proceeds, they become committed to being endoderm, mesoderm, or ectoderm cell types, then to specialized types within those divisions, and so on, until they differentiate into a final cell type and remain so for the life of the organism, never dividing again (with a few exceptions).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developing from Conception > Page 305 \u00b7 Location 6676<\/div>\n
Some researchers believe that subtle errors in laying out these standard minicolumns properly may underlie some disorders such as autism.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developing from Conception > Page 307 \u00b7 Location 6696<\/div>\n
A major question in neuroscience concerns how axons know where to go and what to connect to when they reach their target areas.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developing from Conception > Page 307 \u00b7 Location 6700<\/div>\n
What the genetic code really codes for is a set of cellular responses that comprise rules or procedures that cells follow when responding to their environments, which they do through the manufacture of proteins.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Learning from Experience: Plasticity and the Development of Cortical Maps > Page 312 \u00b7 Location 6819<\/div>\n
Tests have shown that at birth, infants are already familiar with their mother\u2019s voice from hearing it in the womb, for example. This is possible because neurons in newborns\u2019 auditory cortices already respond better to the speech sounds of their mother in her language than to other voices in that language or to the mother speaking a different language she did not use while they were in the womb.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Learning from Experience: Plasticity and the Development of Cortical Maps > Page 312 \u00b7 Location 6831<\/div>\n
RNA contains the sugar ribose instead of the deoxyribose in DNA. The complementary base to adenine in RNA is uracil rather than the thymine in DNA. RNA is single stranded while DNA is double stranded.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Learning from Experience: Plasticity and the Development of Cortical Maps > Page 313 \u00b7 Location 6852<\/div>\n
Another process, called reverse transcription, uses RNA from a virus that has entered the cell to make DNA in the cell nucleus. Reverse transcription occurs in retroviruses such as HIV and is a common feature of the replication cycle for many viruses by which they hijack the cell\u2019s transcription machinery to make copies of themselves.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Taking the Wrong Path: Nervous System Disorders of Development > Page 314 \u00b7 Location 6871<\/div>\n
The first part of the experiment is whether this new genome can control the development of a viable fetus that will progress to full term and birth.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Taking the Wrong Path: Nervous System Disorders of Development > Page 316 \u00b7 Location 6914<\/div>\n
genotype)<\/div>\n
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phenotype).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Taking the Wrong Path: Nervous System Disorders of Development > Page 317 \u00b7 Location 6922<\/div>\n
elucidation of the CRISPR-Cas9<\/div>\n
Highlight(yellow<\/span>) – Taking the Wrong Path: Nervous System Disorders of Development > Page 317 \u00b7 Location 6937<\/div>\n
degeneracy.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Taking the Wrong Path: Nervous System Disorders of Development > Page 318 \u00b7 Location 6950<\/div>\n
the developing embryo. The general term for substances that cause birth defects is teratogen.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 318 \u00b7 Location 6961<\/div>\n
axon myelination,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 318 \u00b7 Location 6962<\/div>\n
continues until nearly the end of adolescence.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 319 \u00b7 Location 6968<\/div>\n
telomeres at the end of chromosomes inside the nucleus of cells may only be capable of a finite number of divisions. Each time a cell divides,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 319 \u00b7 Location 6970<\/div>\n
At the whole organism level, joints wear out and blood vessels harden or get clogged with deposits.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 319 \u00b7 Location 6972<\/div>\n
accumulation of more or less random degeneration in multiple tissues<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 319 \u00b7 Location 6973<\/div>\n
telomere shortening<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 319 \u00b7 Location 6979<\/div>\n
In cognition, the accumulation of knowledge and experience tend to compensate in later years for slightly slower reactions and short-term memory capacity.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 319 \u00b7 Location 6982<\/div>\n
Fluid intelligence<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 319 \u00b7 Location 6985<\/div>\n
Crystallized intelligence<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 320 \u00b7 Location 7000<\/div>\n
tennis, which seems to have benefits over and above simpler kinds of exercise, such as jogging.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 320 \u00b7 Location 7001<\/div>\n
choline<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 320 \u00b7 Location 7005<\/div>\n
nootropics)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 320 \u00b7 Location 7009<\/div>\n
Aging is a major risk factor for many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer\u2019s disease, Parkinson\u2019s disease, and vascular disease that affects the brain,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 321 \u00b7 Location 7018<\/div>\n
The neurons that die in the initial stages of Alzheimer\u2019s disease are primarily cholinergic (they use acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter),<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 321 \u00b7 Location 7026<\/div>\n
Parkinson\u2019s disease is associated with death of dopaminergic cells in a specific basal ganglia nucleus called the substantia nigra (which is actually in the midbrain). The death of these cells interferes with the patient\u2019s ability to make voluntary movements or voluntary corrections during walking, such as stepping over an obstacle.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 321 \u00b7 Location 7028<\/div>\n
Researchers have had difficulty telling whether this disease is due to a genetic deficiency that simply takes a long time to play out or a combination of a genetic susceptibility plus an environmental trigger.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 321 \u00b7 Location 7032<\/div>\n
(MPTP)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Aging Brain > Page 322 \u00b7 Location 7050<\/div>\n
Ischemic strokes in which vessel blockages produce loss of nutrient and waste transport. Hemorrhagic strokes in which blood vessels leak blood into the brain.<\/div>\n
Highlight(orange<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 326 \u00b7 Location 7099<\/div>\n
psychology<\/div>\n
Highlight(orange<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 326 \u00b7 Location 7099<\/div>\n
psychiatry<\/div>\n
Highlight(pink<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 326 \u00b7 Location 7099<\/div>\n
The main reason for this division is the former\u2019s fundamental belief in the causality of mental states.<\/div>\n
Highlight(pink<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 326 \u00b7 Location 7107<\/div>\n
therapy is used to assess the effectiveness and progress of the pharmacological treatment rather than as the primary treatment tool itself. The most sophisticated approaches may use pharmacological therapy to potentiate cognitive or behavioral therapy.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 329 \u00b7 Location 7163<\/div>\n
Traumatic events cause an overactive adrenaline response, which persists after the event, making an individual hyper-responsive to future fearful situations.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 330 \u00b7 Location 7189<\/div>\n
Most anti-depressants (particularly recent ones like Prozac) are designed to elevate serotonin levels; many also tend to elevate the levels of norepinephrine and dopamine.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 331 \u00b7 Location 7208<\/div>\n
DBS stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus has produced immediate symptom relief in thousands of such Parkinson\u2019s patients (the subthalamic nucleus is part of the neural circuit in the basal ganglia that also includes the substantia nigra, the brain areas primarily affected by Parkinson\u2019s disease).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 331 \u00b7 Location 7220<\/div>\n
retrograde<\/div>\n
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anterograde<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 332 \u00b7 Location 7244<\/div>\n
GABA transmission (GABA is the most important and ubiquitous fast inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 333 \u00b7 Location 7261<\/div>\n
some internal source in the brain is generating activity in auditory areas that the schizophrenic cannot distinguish from actual hearing.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 333 \u00b7 Location 7263<\/div>\n
anhedonia<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 334 \u00b7 Location 7289<\/div>\n
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder characterized by intrusive thoughts that lead to repetitive behaviors in order to alleviate the anxiety related to the thought.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at the Causes and Types of Mental Illness > Page 334 \u00b7 Location 7294<\/div>\n
OCD has been linked to an abnormality in the serotonin neurotransmitter system and is sometimes successfully treated with SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Promise of Pharmaceuticals > Page 336 \u00b7 Location 7317<\/div>\n
typical antipsychotic<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Promise of Pharmaceuticals > Page 336 \u00b7 Location 7319<\/div>\n
atypical antipsychotic<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Promise of Pharmaceuticals > Page 336 \u00b7 Location 7319<\/div>\n
medications,<\/div>\n
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(GABA is the key inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain).<\/div>\n
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serotonin enhancers<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Promise of Pharmaceuticals > Page 337 \u00b7 Location 7343<\/div>\n
Attempts to supply dopamine to make up for its loss in the substantia nigra, as in Parkinson\u2019s disease, failed because dopamine does not cross the blood\u2013brain barrier if administered into the blood stream. However, its precursor in the pathway for its synthesis in cells, L-dopa, does. L-dopa injections can mitigate Parkinson\u2019s symptoms for several years but eventually becomes ineffective.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Promise of Pharmaceuticals > Page 337 \u00b7 Location 7346<\/div>\n
dyskinesias.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Promise of Pharmaceuticals > Page 337 \u00b7 Location 7359<\/div>\n
Cannabinoids found in marijuana activate receptors called CB1 and CB2 that are involved in the brain\u2019s pain and immune control systems.<\/div>\n
Part 5: The Part of Tens<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Thalamus, Gateway to the Neocortex > Page 342 \u00b7 Location 7405<\/div>\n
Thalamus,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Cerebellum > Page 343 \u00b7 Location 7429<\/div>\n
The function of the cerebellum is to modulate and coordinate motor behavior.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Cerebellum > Page 343 \u00b7 Location 7433<\/div>\n
process has become programmed within your cerebellum and its connections to motor cortex.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Hippocampus > Page 344 \u00b7 Location 7445<\/div>\n
The hippocampus can play back a sequence of events in context and activate the cortical areas that were activated by the event itself. This playback occurs typically during sleep, especially during REM sleep. The result of the playback is that the memories that were stored for a short term in the hippocampus cause long-term storage back in the neocortical areas that were activated during the original episode.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Wernicke\u2019s and Broca\u2019s Areas > Page 344 \u00b7 Location 7463<\/div>\n
area on the right side of the brain corresponding to Wernicke\u2019s on the left processes tone of voice indicating irony, humor, and other aspects of what is called prosody.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Fusiform Face Area > Page 345 \u00b7 Location 7476<\/div>\n
The fusiform face area (FFA) is a region of the medial temporal lobe that underlies our learned ability to recognize faces or even, in some cases, discriminate models of cars or species of birds that are similar in appearance.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Lateral Prefrontal Cortex > Page 346 \u00b7 Location 7508<\/div>\n
salient<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Lateral Prefrontal Cortex > Page 346 \u00b7 Location 7508<\/div>\n
The main brain area responsible for working memory is the lateral prefrontal cortex.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Substantia Nigra (Basal Ganglia) > Page 347 \u00b7 Location 7521<\/div>\n
The basal ganglia are a complex, interconnected set of subcortical nuclei that control behavior at the level below the neocortex. The substantia nigra performs a crucial modulatory role in this system. One reason that the basal ganglia have become relatively well known is Parkinson\u2019s disease, which is caused by a degeneration of dopamine producing neurons in the substantia nigra.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Anterior Cingulate Cortex > Page 348 \u00b7 Location 7540<\/div>\n
you can think of the lateral prefrontal cortex as holding the content of thought and the ACC as selecting that content.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 19: Ten Tricks of Neurons That Make Them Do What They Do > Page 349 \u00b7 Location 7551<\/div>\n
Neurons are cells.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 19: Ten Tricks of Neurons That Make Them Do What They Do > Page 349 \u00b7 Location 7553<\/div>\n
This specialization evolved because it allowed organisms to increase their survival chances by moving within their environment based on sensing things like food, toxins, temperature, and predators.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Overcoming Neurons\u2019 Size Limit > Page 350 \u00b7 Location 7561<\/div>\n
Neurons receive information via synapses.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Overcoming Neurons\u2019 Size Limit > Page 350 \u00b7 Location 7570<\/div>\n
Synapses are either electrical or chemical.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting Specialized for the Senses > Page 352 \u00b7 Location 7612<\/div>\n
cause action potentials<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Computing with Ion Channel Currents > Page 352 \u00b7 Location 7617<\/div>\n
When ion channels are open and allow sodium ions to flow through, the neuron is excited. It is inhibited when potassium or chloride channels are open.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Computing with Ion Channel Currents > Page 353 \u00b7 Location 7619<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Speeding Things Up with Myelination > Page 354 \u00b7 Location 7660<\/div>\n
electrophysiologists<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Changing Synaptic Weights to Adapt and Learn > Page 356 \u00b7 Location 7686<\/div>\n
The effort to uncover principles of learning and memory used to be called the search for the engram, the memory trace in the brain that constituted a memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Changing Synaptic Weights to Adapt and Learn > Page 356 \u00b7 Location 7697<\/div>\n
Learning in the hippocampus is unique because it consists first of changes in synaptic strength, followed by growth of new neural connections, and then new neurons.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Correcting Developmental Disorders through Gene Therapy > Page 358 \u00b7 Location 7726<\/div>\n
Retroviruses can be engineered with sequences that knock out host genes or insert new genes into the host.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Augmenting the Brain with Genetic Manipulation > Page 359 \u00b7 Location 7740<\/div>\n
how to grow a larger human neocortex in the next few years.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Correcting Brain Injury with Stem Cells > Page 360 \u00b7 Location 7761<\/div>\n
Neural stem cells transplanted into a brain area where the patient\u2019s own cells have died, such as the Subtantia Nigra in Parkinson\u2019s disease, may produce replacement cells as the stem cells sense their local environment and differentiate into the needed neural types.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Using Deep Brain Stimulation to Treat Neurological Disorders > Page 360 \u00b7 Location 7776<\/div>\n
Some Parkinson\u2019s patients, for example, can be seen to exhibit the typical stooped posture and shuffling gate with the device off, but, as soon as the current is turned on, they are able to walk and engage in sports like basketball.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Building a Better Brain through Neuroprostheses > Page 363 \u00b7 Location 7835<\/div>\n
Experiments have demonstrated that humans (and monkeys) can use electrode arrays implanted in their motor cortices to move computer cursors and artificial arms just by thinking about doing<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Building a Better Brain through Neuroprostheses > Page 363 \u00b7 Location 7845<\/div>\n
the techniques for brain-computer interfacing are already here, already being used, and rapidly improving.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Engaging in Computer-Controlled Learning > Page 364 \u00b7 Location 7853<\/div>\n
Highly proficient computer tutors are being embodied in avatars, computer simulations of teaching characters with whom the student interacts.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Treating Disease with Nanobots > Page 364 \u00b7 Location 7864<\/div>\n
Nanotechnology<\/div>\n
Glossary<\/div>\n
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afferent:<\/div>\n
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ageusia:<\/div>\n
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amygdala:<\/div>\n
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limbic<\/div>\n
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apraxia:<\/div>\n
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associative memory:<\/div>\n
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The ability to remember a relationship between two different things, usually by modifying synapses so that particular neurons fire to the constellation of associated items.<\/div>\n
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basal ganglia: A set of subcortical nuclei that control movement sequences via their output to the thalamus.<\/div>\n
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biogenic amines:<\/div>\n
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catecholamines<\/div>\n
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central pattern generator:<\/div>\n
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descriptive term for the neural organization within the spinal cord that coordinates four-or two-limbed movement without the necessity for cortical input.<\/div>\n
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notochord.<\/div>\n
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codon:<\/div>\n
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Cortisol is the primary stress hormone<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Page 370 \u00b7 Location 7984<\/div>\n
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dopamine: A<\/div>\n
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biogenic amine neurotransmitter.<\/div>\n
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efferent:<\/div>\n
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glial<\/div>\n
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hippocampus: A limbic system structure involved in converting short-term memories to long-term memories.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Page 374 \u00b7 Location 8111<\/div>\n
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macular degeneration:<\/div>\n
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metabotropic (receptor):<\/div>\n
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myelin:<\/div>\n
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Almost all neural regions in the occipital lobe are involved in vision.<\/div>\n
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temporal lobe<\/div>\n
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somatic<\/div>\n
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autonomic<\/div>\n
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enteric<\/div>\n
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pinna:<\/div>\n
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postsynaptic: The receiving side of a synapse,<\/div>\n
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presbycusis: The decline in hearing sensitivity as a function of age,<\/div>\n
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presynaptic:<\/div>\n
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nucleic acid<\/div>\n
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protein.<\/div>\n
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semantic memory:<\/div>\n
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serotonin: A biogenic amine neurotransmitter.<\/div>\n
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episodic memory.<\/div>\n
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spinocerebellar tract:<\/div>\n
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substantia nigra:<\/div>\n
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temporal lobe: The area of the neocortex on each side of the brain.<\/div>\n
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trigeminal nerve: The cranial nerve V that sends touch, temperature, and pain information from the face to the brain. It consists of three divisions: ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular.<\/div>\n
About the Author<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Page 399 \u00b7 Location 9714<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Neuroscience For Dummies Amthor, Frank Citation (Chicago Style): Amthor, Frank. Neuroscience For Dummies. Wiley, 2023. Kindle edition. Copyright Highlight(blue) – Page iv \u00b7 Location 8 Published by: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, www.wiley.com Copyright \u00a9 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Part 1: Introducing the … <\/p>\n

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