{"id":1643,"date":"2024-01-28T14:14:09","date_gmt":"2024-01-28T22:14:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/alteritas.net\/alteritas\/?p=1643"},"modified":"2024-01-28T14:14:22","modified_gmt":"2024-01-28T22:14:22","slug":"notes-to-neurobiology-for-dummies","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/alteritas.net\/alteritas\/2024\/01\/28\/notes-to-neurobiology-for-dummies\/","title":{"rendered":"Notes to Neurobiology for Dummies"},"content":{"rendered":"
Neurobiology For Dummies<\/div>\n
Amthor, Frank<\/div>\n
Citation (Chicago Style): Amthor, Frank. Neurobiology For Dummies<\/i>. Wiley, 2020. Kindle edition.<\/div>\n
\n
Part I: Getting Started with Neurobiology<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 1: Welcome to the World of Neurobiology > Page 7 \u00b7 Location 631<\/div>\n
Generally, the human genetic program creates a brain with more neurons than any other animal, allowing for richer experience to produce a unique kind of intelligence.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Introducing Neurons > Page 9 \u00b7 Location 677<\/div>\n
eukaryotes (cells that have a nucleus). Soon after eukaryotes appeared, multicellular organisms came on the scene.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Introducing Neurons > Page 11 \u00b7 Location 722<\/div>\n
Different muscles must be contracted in an organized manner, and information from the senses must be sent to remote parts of the body neurons to coordinate movement.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Introducing Neurons > Page 12 \u00b7 Location 750<\/div>\n
Bionics is the field of applying biological principles of operation to man-made devices.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Organizing the Nervous System > Page 14 \u00b7 Location 788<\/div>\n
The autonomic nervous system has major subdivisions into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches that tend to oppose each other\u2019s actions. The sympathetic system prepares us for action in the fight-or-flight mode, while the parasympathetic system organizes resources for digestion, and the maintenance and conservation of energy.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Organizing the Nervous System > Page 15 \u00b7 Location 823<\/div>\n
primary motor cortex, the supplementary motor area (SMA) and premotor cortex (PMC), contain motor<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Perceiving the World, Thinking, Learning, and Remembering > Page 18 \u00b7 Location 888<\/div>\n
The olfactory system is unique in being divided between a pathway that projects (although indirectly) through the thalamus, of which we are aware, and a pathway that is non-thalamic, which influences our behavior, but of which we are not directly aware.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Perceiving the World, Thinking, Learning, and Remembering > Page 18 \u00b7 Location 894<\/div>\n
A behavioral hallmark of mammals is they can change their behavior through learning.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Perceiving the World, Thinking, Learning, and Remembering > Page 19 \u00b7 Location 902<\/div>\n
One important aspect of the reconstructive aspect of memory is that the act of reconstruction can distort the memory. Suggestions, guesses, and events after the memory can affect the reconstruction such that they become part of, and indistinguishable from, subsequent reconstructions.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 24 \u00b7 Location 1027<\/div>\n
each unique form of a single gene is called an allele.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 25 \u00b7 Location 1054<\/div>\n
Adenine (A) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Thymine (T)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 26 \u00b7 Location 1086<\/div>\n
mitosis, which is itself divided into different phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 27 \u00b7 Location 1092<\/div>\n
(RNA is a nucleotide like DNA, except is has the nucleotide uracil substituted for thymine.)<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Getting into Genetics > Page 27 \u00b7 Location 1094<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 27 \u00b7 Location 1095<\/div>\n
called base pairing.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 27 \u00b7 Location 1099<\/div>\n
The genetic code is a sequence of three nucleotides (called a codon) that specifies an amino acid.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 27 \u00b7 Location 1113<\/div>\n
that in RNA the nucleotide uracil takes the place that thymine occupies in DNA.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 28 \u00b7 Location 1129<\/div>\n
heterophilic nuclear RNA (hnRNA).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 29 \u00b7 Location 1147<\/div>\n
Methylation and histone deacetylation may act simultaneously to control DNA expression.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 30 \u00b7 Location 1166<\/div>\n
reverse transcription, which is the transfer of information from RNA to make new DNA. Reverse transcription occurs in retroviruses such as HIV and is a common feature of the replication cycle for many viruses.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 30 \u00b7 Location 1186<\/div>\n
Epigenetics is the change in gene expression (and thus, cell phenotype, which we discuss earlier in this chapter) due to mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting into Genetics > Page 31 \u00b7 Location 1199<\/div>\n
totipotent stem cells (cells that can develop into any cell type) differentiate<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Meeting Cell Molecules: Important Ions and Proteins > Page 32 \u00b7 Location 1213<\/div>\n
The most important ions that flow through neuronal membrane channels are sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Meeting Cell Molecules: Important Ions and Proteins > Page 32 \u00b7 Location 1217<\/div>\n
Sodium entering into cells can trigger action potentials and lead to synaptic release, two crucial neural functions.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Meeting Cell Molecules: Important Ions and Proteins > Page 32 \u00b7 Location 1223<\/div>\n
Highlight(yellow<\/span>) – Meeting Cell Molecules: Important Ions and Proteins > Page 32 \u00b7 Location 1228<\/div>\n
Normally magnesium does not pass through neuronal membranes. However, when the neuron is close to the resting potential, magnesium, attracted to the negative charge inside, binds in the extracellular \u201cmouth\u201d of the NMDA glutamate receptor. This receptor will not open unless, in addition to binding glutamate released from a pre-synaptic axon terminal, the membrane is partially depolarized. This depolarization (which is often provided by nearby non-NMDA excitatory receptors) reduces the potential across the membrane and thereby favors the release of the magnesium ion, allowing sodium and some calcium to flow through the channel.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Meeting Cell Molecules: Important Ions and Proteins > Page 33 \u00b7 Location 1240<\/div>\n
Membrane proteins have a three-dimensional configuration.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Peeking at the Parts of a Cell > Page 35 \u00b7 Location 1282<\/div>\n
hormones\u2014chemicals released by a cell in one part of the organism that act as messages to cells in other parts of the organism.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Peeking at the Parts of a Cell > Page 35 \u00b7 Location 1294<\/div>\n
exocytosis<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Peeking at the Parts of a Cell > Page 35 \u00b7 Location 1296<\/div>\n
The sequence of neurotransmission is quite similar to hormonal communication. Neurotransmission differs, however, in that neurons actually contact other specific neurons\u2014or muscles or gland cells\u2014directly at synapses, where information flows from one neuron to another across the synaptic cleft, the gap between a pre-and post-synaptic cell. The neurotransmitter released usually activates only receptors directly across the synaptic cleft in a single postsynaptic cell. This allows for significantly more complex communication with neurons than is possible with hormones.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Setting Boundaries: Cell Membrane Lipids > Page 36 \u00b7 Location 1311<\/div>\n
phospholipids.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Setting Boundaries: Cell Membrane Lipids > Page 36 \u00b7 Location 1312<\/div>\n
rigid molecules such as cellulose,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Setting Boundaries: Cell Membrane Lipids > Page 37 \u00b7 Location 1326<\/div>\n
amphipathic.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Setting Boundaries: Cell Membrane Lipids > Page 38 \u00b7 Location 1345<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Setting Boundaries: Cell Membrane Lipids > Page 38 \u00b7 Location 1350<\/div>\n
It\u2019s interesting that the extracellular fluid around cells in animals resembles the seawater in which cells originally evolved. If you think this wasn\u2019t an accident, you\u2019re right!<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Setting Boundaries: Cell Membrane Lipids > Page 38 \u00b7 Location 1353<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Knowing the Neuron: Not Just Another Cell > Page 43 \u00b7 Location 1427<\/div>\n
The axon conducts action potentials, millisecond-long electrical pulses that move from the cell body to the synaptic terminals of the axon, where they cause neurotransmitter to be released onto postsynaptic neurons.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Knowing the Neuron: Not Just Another Cell > Page 44 \u00b7 Location 1451<\/div>\n
Above this threshold, the rate of action potentials, or spikes, is generally proportional to the net excitatory (depolarizing) current.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – When Things Go Wrong: Genetics and Neurological Illness > Page 46 \u00b7 Location 1506<\/div>\n
transgenic animals<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – When Things Go Wrong: Genetics and Neurological Illness > Page 46 \u00b7 Location 1520<\/div>\n
Typically, the introduced DNA is packaged within a vector that is used to get the DNA inside cells within the body. One common vector is a virus, because viruses normally function by binding the cell membrane and inserting their DNA or RNA into the cell. The contents of a virus can be modified to produce a human gene. Also, exogenous DNA may be introduced that encodes a therapeutic protein that works like a drug rather than the DNA corresponding to any actual human gene.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at Membrane Channels > Page 48 \u00b7 Location 1567<\/div>\n
Ion-selective channels Ion-selective channels, as their name implies, control the movement of certain ions through plasma membranes.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at Membrane Channels > Page 49 \u00b7 Location 1588<\/div>\n
Secretory mechanisms Neurons release neurotransmitters at their presynaptic terminals.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Discovering Diffusion and Voltage > Page 53 \u00b7 Location 1668<\/div>\n
The Nernst equation\u2014developed from basic thermodynamic principles by the 19th-century German chemist Walter Nernst\u2014gives us the answer. It gives the \u201cbalance point\u201d (called the equilibrium potential) between the diffusion and voltage forces,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Discovering Diffusion and Voltage > Page 55 \u00b7 Location 1707<\/div>\n
\ufffc The Goldman\u2013Hodgkin\u2013Katz equation determines the voltage that results from ionic currents across the membrane.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Signaling with Electricity in Neurons > Page 57 \u00b7 Location 1752<\/div>\n
Neurons receive messages in the form of neurotransmitters through ligand-gated channels on their dendrites, soma, and, in some cases, axon. These inputs are excitatory if the receptors flux sodium ions, inhibitory if they flux potassium or chloride.<\/div>\n
Highlight(yellow<\/span>) – Making Spikes with Sodium and Potassium Channels > Page 60 \u00b7 Location 1835<\/div>\n
Refractory periods and spike rate coding<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making Spikes with Sodium and Potassium Channels > Page 60 \u00b7 Location 1844<\/div>\n
One interesting result of this second factor is that the relationship between synaptic input current and spike rate in most neurons is more like a logarithmic function than a linear function.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making Spikes with Sodium and Potassium Channels > Page 61 \u00b7 Location 1854<\/div>\n
Creating an accurate model of the activity of just one neuron\u2014the complex, time-varying changes in its thousands of synapses and millions of voltage-dependent membrane ion channels\u2014can take 100 percent of the processing power of a quite large computer.<\/div>\n
Highlight(orange<\/span>) – Making Spikes with Sodium and Potassium Channels > Page 62 \u00b7 Location 1862<\/div>\n
cable theory,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making Spikes with Sodium and Potassium Channels > Page 64 \u00b7 Location 1920<\/div>\n
unmyelinated axons,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Insulating with Glial Cells > Page 66 \u00b7 Location 1941<\/div>\n
The glial cells that do this are Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Insulating with Glial Cells > Page 66 \u00b7 Location 1951<\/div>\n
nodes of Ranvier,<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 4: Sending Signals: Chemical Release and Electrical Activation > Page 67 \u00b7 Location 1954<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at Synaptic Transmission > Page 68 \u00b7 Location 1977<\/div>\n
receptors). If the ion channel is selectively permeable to sodium (that is, it allows sodium ions to pass), it\u2019s an excitatory receptor. If the channel is permeable to potassium or chloride, it is typically an inhibitory receptor.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking at Synaptic Transmission > Page 72 \u00b7 Location 2078<\/div>\n
carbon monoxide.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Being Receptive to Neurotransmitter Receptors > Page 76 \u00b7 Location 2154<\/div>\n
Neuromuscular activation occurs by ionotropic acetylcholine receptors, called nicotinic receptors (because they can be activated by nicotine).<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Being Receptive to Neurotransmitter Receptors > Page 77 \u00b7 Location 2179<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Being Receptive to Neurotransmitter Receptors > Page 79 \u00b7 Location 2229<\/div>\n
receptor, but that is effective in producing the same effects as the normal neurotransmitter.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Conquering: Interneurons and Circuits > Page 82 \u00b7 Location 2288<\/div>\n
Most digital computers are serial devices, executing one instruction at a time. The brain is massively parallel, however, potentially executing billion of actions simultaneously.<\/div>\n
Part II: Neuroanatomy: Organizing the Nervous System<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Page 83 \u00b7 Location 2296<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Segmenting the Spine > Page 105 \u00b7 Location 2696<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Spying on the Spinal Cord > Page 106 \u00b7 Location 2735<\/div>\n
The spinal cord is an extended brain whose different segments (with some overlap) control the four limbs (and other body parts) to act in unison. However, the spinal cord lacks vision, hearing, smell, taste, and balance senses. These senses are concentrated in the head, which, in four-legged and swimming animals, is first to encounter stimuli during movement. The brain has an elaborate structure for processing sensory information and coordinating it with bodily movement.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Spying on the Spinal Cord > Page 107 \u00b7 Location 2751<\/div>\n
The white-matter axon tracts carry information up and down the spinal cord to other segments and the brain.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Spying on the Spinal Cord > Page 107 \u00b7 Location 2753<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Spying on the Spinal Cord > Page 107 \u00b7 Location 2755<\/div>\n
In the center of the gray area is a canal that contains cerebrospinal (brain and spine) fluid. The fluid is continuous with the brain.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Spying on the Spinal Cord > Page 108 \u00b7 Location 2759<\/div>\n
Because of the continuity between the spinal and brain cerebrospinal fluid, anesthetics can be injected below the cauda equina between L3 and L5 into the spinal cord and will, through circulation of the fluid, reach the brain.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Spying on the Spinal Cord > Page 110 \u00b7 Location 2829<\/div>\n
You can think of walking as a process of falling forward and catching yourself again and again. In the falling forward phase, you override your balance reflexes until the point where you swing a leg forward.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Spying on the Spinal Cord > Page 110 \u00b7 Location 2835<\/div>\n
The spinal cord neuronal circuits that produce these rhythmic patterns of neural activity are called central pattern generators (CPGs).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Correcting Errors: The Cerebellum > Page 114 \u00b7 Location 2921<\/div>\n
The cerebellum (Latin for \u201clittle brain\u201d) is a part of the brain that plays an important role in motor coordination, precision, and timing.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Correcting Errors: The Cerebellum > Page 115 \u00b7 Location 2935<\/div>\n
Cerebellar lesions result in decreased muscle tone, clumsy and abnormal movements, and loss of balance.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – The Brainstem: Medulla, Pons, Midbrain > Page 125 \u00b7 Location 3132<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Brainstem: Medulla, Pons, Midbrain > Page 127 \u00b7 Location 3173<\/div>\n
decussation of the pyramids.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Brainstem: Medulla, Pons, Midbrain > Page 129 \u00b7 Location 3217<\/div>\n
substantia nigra<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling Your Motives: The Limbic System > Page 136 \u00b7 Location 3343<\/div>\n
The hippocampus is an association engine for memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling Your Motives: The Limbic System > Page 136 \u00b7 Location 3351<\/div>\n
With practice, and often during sleep, the hippocampus reciprocally fires back at the neocortex cells that generated the long-term potentiation, and produces a long-term memory by enabling the cells in the neocortex to form their own mutually excitatory memory circuit that can be activated by future input, independent of the hippocampus.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling Your Motives: The Limbic System > Page 137 \u00b7 Location 3369<\/div>\n
The famous clinical case of the patient H.M. shows the importance of the hippocampus in learning.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Regulating the Autonomic Nervous System: The Hypothalamus > Page 138 \u00b7 Location 3402<\/div>\n
One theory is that synapses that are activated during waking activities are pared back (in a process known as normalization) so that the brain is ready for renewed synapse growth during learning.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Regulating the Autonomic Nervous System: The Hypothalamus > Page 139 \u00b7 Location 3412<\/div>\n
REM sleep has been shown to be important for consolidating learning. During REM sleep, what has been learned during the day and held in short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 8: Generating Behavior: Basal Ganglia, Thalamus, Motor Cortex, and Frontal Cortex > Page 145 \u00b7 Location 3559<\/div>\n
The important brain areas for decisions about doing things include the basal ganglia, thalamus, and frontal lobes, all of which I discuss in this chapter.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Basal Ganglia and Its Nuclei > Page 146 \u00b7 Location 3568<\/div>\n
and the substantia nigra, which are actually in the midbrain.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – The Basal Ganglia and Its Nuclei > Page 146 \u00b7 Location 3573<\/div>\n
Bookmark – The Basal Ganglia and Its Nuclei > Page 146 \u00b7 Location 3573<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Basal Ganglia and Its Nuclei > Page 146 \u00b7 Location 3573<\/div>\n
Coronal brain section<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Basal Ganglia and Its Nuclei > Page 147 \u00b7 Location 3583<\/div>\n
The striatum inhibits the globus pallidus external segment (GPe), globus pallidus internal segment (GPi), and substantia nigra reticulata (SNr). GPe inhibits the subthalamic nucleus (STN). STN excites GPe and GPi\/ SNr. The output of the basal ganglia, GPi\/ SNr inhibits the thalamus, which itself excites the frontal cortex. The net effect of all this is that the inputs to the thalamus that are not inhibited by the basal ganglia are the ones that activate the cortex.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Basal Ganglia and Its Nuclei > Page 147 \u00b7 Location 3589<\/div>\n
Although the operation of the basal ganglia and related nuclei are not well understood, it is clear that the basal ganglia are involved in the selection of behaviors. Given the current inputs and brain state, the neocortex is simultaneously activating \u201cprograms\u201d for multiple behaviors. The job of the basal ganglia is to choose one behavior over all the others.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Basal Ganglia and Its Nuclei > Page 148 \u00b7 Location 3606<\/div>\n
Both the direct and indirect pathways are modulated by the SNc, which uses the neurotransmitter dopamine. Dopamine release by the SNc amplifies activity in the direct pathway, increasing cortical activation of movement. Dopamine released by the SNc also reduces the effect of indirect pathway inhibition. The reduction of dopamine release in the case of Parkinson\u2019s disease causes people to lose their ability to initiate movement, because of both lowered activity of the direct pathway and reduced inhibition of the inhibitory indirect pathway.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling Muscles: The Primary Motor Cortex > Page 148 \u00b7 Location 3611<\/div>\n
Many neurons in the motor cortex send their axons down the spinal cord and synapse on alpha motor neurons (the motor neurons that innervate muscle fibers; refer to Chapter 5) in a direct control pathway. This direct pathway allows fine, conscious control of muscles, particularly in the hands and fingers.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Controlling Muscles: The Primary Motor Cortex > Page 149 \u00b7 Location 3617<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Controlling Muscles: The Primary Motor Cortex > Page 149 \u00b7 Location 3626<\/div>\n
The primary motor cortex contains a distorted map of the body\u2019s muscles called a homunculus.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Coordinating Muscle Groups: Central Control > Page 150 \u00b7 Location 3645<\/div>\n
Although the spinal cord is pretty good at coordinating ordinary movement, evolution has not yet programmed your body to dance the foxtrot, play hopscotch, or swim.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Coordinating Muscle Groups: Central Control > Page 150 \u00b7 Location 3650<\/div>\n
abstract representations of your goals exist in prefrontal cortex, the most anterior part of the frontal lobe.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Coordinating Muscle Groups: Central Control > Page 151 \u00b7 Location 3667<\/div>\n
\ufffc The SMA is activated even if you just imagine doing something like moving your arms and legs, without actually doing it.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Thalamus: Gateway to the Neocortex > Page 153 \u00b7 Location 3717<\/div>\n
Because of this appearance, area 17 is called striate (for striped) cortex.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Thalamus: Gateway to the Neocortex > Page 154 \u00b7 Location 3739<\/div>\n
\ufffc Some taste information is also projected to the orbitofrontal cortex where, combined with smell information, it gives rise to the finer senses of food flavor. Tell that to your foodie friends at their next dinner party!<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Thalamus: Gateway to the Neocortex > Page 155 \u00b7 Location 3774<\/div>\n
Neurons in the reticular areas are mostly GABAergic (use the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA),<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Focusing on Goals with the Prefrontal Cortex > Page 156 \u00b7 Location 3802<\/div>\n
prefrontal cortex. When this brain area is damaged, behavior becomes stimulus driven, not dependent on internal goals.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Focusing on Goals with the Prefrontal Cortex > Page 157 \u00b7 Location 3811<\/div>\n
Damage to the orbitofrontal-<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Focusing on Goals with the Prefrontal Cortex > Page 157 \u00b7 Location 3811<\/div>\n
amygdala system can result in sociopathic behavior in which the person is unable to feel empathy.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Focusing on Goals with the Prefrontal Cortex > Page 157 \u00b7 Location 3820<\/div>\n
The ventral ACC is involved in processing emotional stimuli.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Focusing on Goals with the Prefrontal Cortex > Page 157 \u00b7 Location 3821<\/div>\n
One of the most fascinating findings in neurobiology in the last two decades has been the repeated demonstration of activation of the ACC while performing difficult or confusing tasks.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 9: Topping It Off: The Neocortex > Page 159 \u00b7 Location 3863<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Neocortex and Its Lobes > Page 161 \u00b7 Location 3891<\/div>\n
fusiform face area that processes faces and other complex visual stimuli.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Looking Inside the Skull: The Neocortex and Its Lobes > Page 165 \u00b7 Location 3966<\/div>\n
Using a single circuit for all sensory and motor neural computation is one of the most remarkable traits of mammals. Many neurobiologists believe that it\u2019s the key to mammals\u2019 success and the ultimate generator of human intelligence and consciousness. How<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Getting to the Brain You Have Today: The Neocortex versus Your Reptilian Brain > Page 167 \u00b7 Location 4012<\/div>\n
ependymal cells<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Making Decisions: The Lateral Prefrontal Cortex > Page 171 \u00b7 Location 4088<\/div>\n
So, a teenage driver is someone controlling a car without a fully developed frontal lobe.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Seeing Both Sides: The Left and Right Hemispheres > Page 178 \u00b7 Location 4242<\/div>\n
An area in the right medial temporal lobe called the fusiform face area is crucial for recognizing faces.<\/div>\n
Note – Seeing Both Sides: The Left and Right Hemispheres > Page 178 \u00b7 Location 4250<\/div>\n
Than<\/div>\n
Part III: Perceiving the World, Thinking, Learning, and Remembering<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 11: Feeling, Smelling, and Tasting > Page 221 \u00b7 Location 5182<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory > Page 237 \u00b7 Location 5527<\/div>\n
Priming involves long-term memory not because the effect of a subliminally flashed image (the prime) reliably lasts for a lifetime, but because the effect of a prime activates the long-term memory system, including our world knowledge semantics. This semantic system is sometimes referred to as the perceptual representation system.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Forgetting It: Amnesia and Other Memory Loss > Page 249 \u00b7 Location 5807<\/div>\n
retrograde<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Forgetting It: Amnesia and Other Memory Loss > Page 249 \u00b7 Location 5807<\/div>\n
anterograde<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Forgetting It: Amnesia and Other Memory Loss > Page 251 \u00b7 Location 5846<\/div>\n
Death is usually caused by the disruption of body function regulation carried out by subcortical brain areas.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Improving Your Learning > Page 251 \u00b7 Location 5853<\/div>\n
Deep learning is the linkage of new information to multiple levels of one\u2019s already-existing semantic network.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Improving Your Learning > Page 252 \u00b7 Location 5866<\/div>\n
However, if you practice learning at multiple times, in multiple contexts, learning will be deeper and you\u2019ll be more likely to recall what you\u2019ve learned.<\/div>\n
Note – Improving Your Learning > Page 252 \u00b7 Location 5871<\/div>\n
Memory palace<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Improving Your Learning > Page 252 \u00b7 Location 5877<\/div>\n
The hippocampus probably originally evolved primarily for learning in spatial navigation, and its role in episodic memory evolved later from that.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Chapter 13: The Frontal Lobes and Executive Brain > Page 253 \u00b7 Location 5879<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Reflexes versus Conscious or Goal-Generated Action > Page 254 \u00b7 Location 5907<\/div>\n
\ufffc The crucial difference between insect and mammalian social groups is that insect social groups are composed of a few castes. An insect\u2019s behavior is almost completely specified by a few types of responses to stimuli, as a function of its caste. But mammalian social groups consist of individuals, each of which has a specific identity and social rank.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Reflexes versus Conscious or Goal-Generated Action > Page 255 \u00b7 Location 5924<\/div>\n
Our large contingency-representing brains also produced bluffing, lying, deceit, war, altruism, and all-encompassing spiritual explanations for reality.<\/div>\n
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For example, an ancient evolutionary hack is to use the reflex of stepping when falling forward to generate walking.<\/div>\n
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Instead, mammals co-opted the lower, yet competent systems they inherited by controlling them at a higher level, based on more complex contingencies and learning.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Deciding How to Do It: The Frontal Lobes and Action Execution > Page 256 \u00b7 Location 5967<\/div>\n
One way to think about limbic system control of behavior is to think about the limbic system as a device for switching states. Most animals have a finite number of goal states, such as seeking water, food, a mate, or shelter. The limbic system receives input from the body\u2019s homeostatic mechanisms, and, with limited sensory input dependency, selects the highest priority from a set of evolutionarily programmed behaviors, such as seeking a water hole or a mate.<\/div>\n
Note – Deciding How to Do It: The Frontal Lobes and Action Execution > Page 257 \u00b7 Location 5975<\/div>\n
The animal remembers or the animals remmber<\/div>\n
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Athletic coaches know that imagining hitting a tennis forehand activates the premotor sequence for doing so, and can improve a player\u2019s skill, even though the actual output to the muscles is suppressed.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Initiating Action in the Basal Ganglia > Page 258 \u00b7 Location 6005<\/div>\n
Parkinson\u2019s disease, which is associated with loss of dopaminergic transmission from the substantia nigra.<\/div>\n
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Parkinson\u2019s patients can certainly formulate abstract motor plans, but they have trouble initiating and executing them.<\/div>\n
Highlight(yellow<\/span>) – Initiating Action in the Basal Ganglia > Page 258 \u00b7 Location 6007<\/div>\n
This suggests that the instantiation of the motor sequence conceived in the frontal lobes still depends on subcortical structures to initiate, implement, and provide feedback control to deal with errors.<\/div>\n
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The overall output of the basal ganglia inhibits all the motor sequences except the one selected via its release from inhibition.<\/div>\n
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Patterning and oscillating<\/div>\n
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Different frequency bands have been given different names, such as beta for 15 Hz to 30 Hz and theta for 3 Hz to 10 Hz. These rhythms are important in the normal functioning of the basal ganglia, with abnormally large, static, synchronized rhythms associated with Parkinson\u2019s disease limb tremor. Medications that release dopamine reduce these beta oscillations and increase oscillations above 60 Hertz (high-gamma band). Activity in the subthalamic nucleus, a frequent target of electrical stimulation to relieve Parkinson\u2019s symptoms, is important for the preparation of voluntary movements. Synchronization of subthalamic nucleus activity in the beta band is associated with movement initiation. However, the static, beta frequency oscillations in the basal ganglia in Parkinson\u2019s disease patients interfere with the ability to initiate and execute selected movements, causing the akinesia (loss of voluntary movement) and bradykinesia (slow movement) of Parkinson\u2019s disease.<\/div>\n
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striatum (the input layer of the basal ganglia, consisting of the caudate and putamen).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Coordinating through the Supplementary and Premotor Cortices > Page 259 \u00b7 Location 6036<\/div>\n
(SMA)<\/div>\n
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(PMC;<\/div>\n
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behavioral repertoires,<\/div>\n
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The SMA controls movements and movement sequences that are generated internally, rather than triggered by sensory events.<\/div>\n
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chunking.<\/div>\n
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Practice can be effective even if the activity is only imagined.<\/div>\n
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motor imagery,<\/div>\n
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procedural memory.<\/div>\n
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Motor learning in the cerebellum is mediated primarily by long-term depression (LTD) of parallel fiber synapses onto Purkinje cells. Climbing fibers provide the teaching signal that induces synaptic modification in parallel fiber\u2013Purkinje cell synapses. Climbing fiber activity represents an error signal. Purkinje cells have two different types of action<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Coordinating through the Supplementary and Premotor Cortices > Page 263 \u00b7 Location 6111<\/div>\n
Whereas feedback inhibition, such as in spinal cord reflexes, tends to maintain a limb in a particular position, feedforward inhibition is used to program actions such as slowing down a limb before it reaches the target,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Mirroring Others: Mirror Neurons > Page 264 \u00b7 Location 6131<\/div>\n
Understand the actions and intentions of others:<\/div>\n
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This is consistent with suggestions that autism may involve some problem with the mirror neuron system.<\/div>\n
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theory of mind.<\/div>\n
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Human brain areas homologous to those where mirror neurons have been found in monkeys are located in the inferior frontal cortex, close to Broca\u2019s area, a main language region of the brain. When people gesture to each other, as in the game of charades, fMRI activity increases in brain areas of human observers, consistent with being driven by mirror neurons.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Adapting Our Brains for Language > Page 266 \u00b7 Location 6177<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Adapting Our Brains for Language > Page 267 \u00b7 Location 6197<\/div>\n
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The 3-to 5-millimeter layer of gray matter is where the cell bodies and dendrites of the neurons do most of the processing.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Following Thought through Sensory Pathways and Hierarchies > Page 269 \u00b7 Location 6263<\/div>\n
thalamus<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Following Thought through Sensory Pathways and Hierarchies > Page 270 \u00b7 Location 6276<\/div>\n
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Correlated firing is a major mechanism of attention. It can integrate and select neural activity across the entire brain. Considerable evidence exists that correlated firing underlies all brain activity we\u2019re conscious of.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Speaking Your Mind: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 272 \u00b7 Location 6317<\/div>\n
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arithmetic and algebra:<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Speaking Your Mind: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 274 \u00b7 Location 6355<\/div>\n
Wernicke\u2019s aphasia.<\/div>\n
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fluent aphasia).<\/div>\n
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The ability to recognize faces, for example, is highly dependent on the fusiform face area, which is in the right medial temporal lobe.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Speaking Your Mind: Language, Vision, and the Brain Hemispheres > Page 275 \u00b7 Location 6369<\/div>\n
hemi-neglect,<\/div>\n
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externally (through verbal language) and internally (by thinking). Consciousness is a process, not a place.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Defining Intelligence > Page 276 \u00b7 Location 6405<\/div>\n
Spearman\u2019s g factor (IQ)<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Defining Intelligence > Page 277 \u00b7 Location 6414<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Defining Intelligence > Page 277 \u00b7 Location 6421<\/div>\n
Meta-intelligence is an executive function that refers to self-reflective capabilities, knowing one\u2019s own strengths and weaknesses, and being able to predict<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Defining Intelligence > Page 277 \u00b7 Location 6432<\/div>\n
Much of what IQ researchers mean by meta-cognition is embodied in the common idea of wisdom.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Defining Intelligence > Page 278 \u00b7 Location 6448<\/div>\n
Processing speed<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Emotional Intelligence > Page 279 \u00b7 Location 6457<\/div>\n
Some people think of emotions as the opposite of reason. But emotions are a useful and necessary part of cognition. Emotions not only mediate our instinctual behaviors, but also allow us to learn and adapt important new behaviors that are not rules-based.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Emotional Intelligence > Page 279 \u00b7 Location 6465<\/div>\n
Anger Disgust Fear<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Emotional Intelligence > Page 279 \u00b7 Location 6467<\/div>\n
Happiness Sadness Surprise<\/div>\n
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In his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, Charles Darwin argued that emotions serve a communication purpose in humans that helps us to survive and is, thus, selected for. This idea implies that emotions should have universal cross-cultural expression. It also implies that emotions are connected to basic needs that are necessary for survival.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Emotional Intelligence > Page 280 \u00b7 Location 6490<\/div>\n
However, people can obviously control emotional expressions\u2014that\u2019s how professional actors make their living!<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Emotional Intelligence > Page 281 \u00b7 Location 6517<\/div>\n
The job of the orbitofrontal cortex, then, is to override the amygdala\u2019s activation of the autonomic fight-or-flight response.<\/div>\n
Part IV: Developmental, Neurological, and Mental Disorders and Treatments<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Differentiating after Conception > Page 287 \u00b7 Location 6610<\/div>\n
degeneracy.<\/div>\n
Highlight(yellow<\/span>) – Dividing and Differentiating after Conception > Page 288 \u00b7 Location 6640<\/div>\n
(exons)<\/div>\n
Highlight(yellow<\/span>) – Dividing and Differentiating after Conception > Page 288 \u00b7 Location 6640<\/div>\n
(introns).<\/div>\n
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When the neurons have reached their final positions, they extend axons and dendrites, which allow them to communicate with other neurons via synapses.<\/div>\n
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Before an embryo\u2019s nervous system is formed, cells at the dorsal and ventral poles of the embryo and at other key locations release chemical messengers that establish gradients across the embryo.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Dividing and Differentiating after Conception > Page 289 \u00b7 Location 6666<\/div>\n
Neural migration is controlled by glial cells and trophic factors.<\/div>\n
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meninges, which consist of three layers:<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Polarizing the Brain: Ganglia versus Brains > Page 293 \u00b7 Location 6736<\/div>\n
basic structure we see in worms\u2014the simplest bilaterian animals of today:<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Layering the Neocortex > Page 295 \u00b7 Location 6787<\/div>\n
Evidence suggests that each radial glial cell, and the precursor neurons that migrate along it, form a fundamental unit of cortical organization called the minicolumn.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Layering the Neocortex > Page 296 \u00b7 Location 6799<\/div>\n
you transplant precursor cells from a donor to a recipient animal at a different developmental stage, the donor cells go to the layer they would have migrated to in the donor, not the layer to which other cells are migrating in the recipient.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Layering the Neocortex > Page 297 \u00b7 Location 6814<\/div>\n
Pyramidal cells typically have a single axon that releases glutamate at its terminal. Pyramidal cells are the primary output units of the neocortex.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Layering the Neocortex > Page 297 \u00b7 Location 6826<\/div>\n
(SFA),<\/div>\n
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\ufffc Excitatory pyramidal neurons constitute about 80 percent of neocortical neurons, while inhibitory interneurons account for the remaining 20 percent.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Layering the Neocortex > Page 300 \u00b7 Location 6895<\/div>\n
Sensory projections to the neocortex often are organized as maps,<\/div>\n
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Hebb\u2019s law<\/div>\n
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\u201cWhen an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A\u2019s efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased.\u201d<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Layering the Neocortex > Page 302 \u00b7 Location 6937<\/div>\n
Hebb\u2019s law, as it became known, hypothesized that synaptic modification occurs according to correlated activity in the pre-and post-synaptic elements of synapses.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Layering the Neocortex > Page 302 \u00b7 Location 6947<\/div>\n
During development of the visual system\u2014before the retina even has photoreceptors\u2014waves of organized self-induced spontaneous firing move across the retina constantly to produce a position-dependent internally generated correlated firing. This process repeats itself at every level of the nervous system, through many stages of neocortical processing.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Layering the Neocortex > Page 303 \u00b7 Location 6960<\/div>\n
teratogen.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developmental Neural Disorders > Page 303 \u00b7 Location 6969<\/div>\n
The developing nervous system is building itself by chemical gradients and affinities, and it\u2019s fragile.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developmental Neural Disorders > Page 304 \u00b7 Location 6982<\/div>\n
knockout<\/div>\n
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Parkinson\u2019s<\/div>\n
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autosomal recessive,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developmental Neural Disorders > Page 304 \u00b7 Location 6995<\/div>\n
autosomal dominant<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Developmental Neural Disorders > Page 306 \u00b7 Location 7019<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developmental Neural Disorders > Page 306 \u00b7 Location 7035<\/div>\n
telomeres<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developmental Neural Disorders > Page 307 \u00b7 Location 7047<\/div>\n
Parkinson\u2019s<\/div>\n
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Parkinson\u2019s disease is associated with the death of dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra (a basal ganglia nucleus). The death of these cells interferes with a person\u2019s ability to make voluntary movements or voluntary corrections as he walks, such as stepping over an obstacle.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Developmental Neural Disorders > Page 308 \u00b7 Location 7083<\/div>\n
glioma,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Chapter 16: Movement Disorders > Page 309 \u00b7 Location 7102<\/div>\n
Parkinson\u2019s<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Motor Neuron Damage > Page 315 \u00b7 Location 7234<\/div>\n
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; also known as Lou Gehrig\u2019s disease)<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Basal Ganglia and Other Diseases > Page 317 \u00b7 Location 7282<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Basal Ganglia and Other Diseases > Page 317 \u00b7 Location 7286<\/div>\n
Parkinson\u2019s disease<\/div>\n
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age 50.<\/div>\n
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Although Parkinson\u2019 disease isn\u2019t usually associated with marked cognitive impairment in early stages, it can cause mood problems including depression, apathy, anxiety, and poor impulse control.<\/div>\n
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Some of these symptoms may be related to treatments that attempt to increase dopamine levels rather than primarily from the disease itself.<\/div>\n
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At the cellular level, Parkinson\u2019s is characterized by inclusions called Lewy bodies in dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra.<\/div>\n
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Dopamine released by neurons in the substantia nigra amplifies activity in the basal ganglia direct pathway from the striatum that disinhibits the thalamic projection to the motor cortex (refer to Chapter 8). This increases activation of the motor pathway that will be executed. This dopamine release also reduces the effect of inhibition through an indirect pathway. The reduction of dopamine release in Parkinson\u2019s disease reduces the ability to initiate movement via both direct and indirect pathways via a reduction of the drive to the motor thalamus that gates the cortical excitatory projections to the corticospinal tract and brainstem.<\/div>\n
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while cigarette smoking is associated with a reduced risk for unknown reasons.<\/div>\n
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However, as the disease progresses, dopaminergic neurons are depleted so that supplying dopamine precursors is no longer effective.<\/div>\n
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produces a complication called dyskinesia,<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Basal Ganglia and Other Diseases > Page 319 \u00b7 Location 7316<\/div>\n
chorea.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Strokes and Injuries > Page 323 \u00b7 Location 7419<\/div>\n
A persistent mystery about spinal cord and other central nervous system injuries is the fact that the peripheral nervous system, but not the central nervous system, in mammals, regenerates axon pathways after transection. Also, cold-blooded vertebrates like fish can regenerate even central nervous system tracts<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Strokes and Injuries > Page 323 \u00b7 Location 7421<\/div>\n
like the optic nerve. One idea has to do with the fact that peripheral nervous system axons are wrapped by Schwann cells, whereas central axons are wrapped by oligodendrocytes.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Mixing Genetic and Developmental Components > Page 331 \u00b7 Location 7587<\/div>\n
Monoamines are neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that contain one amino group that is connected to an aromatic ring by a two-carbon chain. The monoamine transmitter group includes serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Mixing Genetic and Developmental Components > Page 331 \u00b7 Location 7592<\/div>\n
low dopamine levels lead to lowered attention, motivation, and anhedonia (reduced feelings of pleasure and reward).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Mixing Genetic and Developmental Components > Page 332 \u00b7 Location 7615<\/div>\n
Tianeptine increases the concentration of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, the brain area important for reward and motivation. It also modulates the D2 and<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Mixing Genetic and Developmental Components > Page 333 \u00b7 Location 7623<\/div>\n
These neurotransmitters have completely different functions in different brain areas, but many pharmacological treatments reduce or elevate their concentrations everywhere.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Mixing Genetic and Developmental Components > Page 335 \u00b7 Location 7672<\/div>\n
The use of DBS for depression followed a much more common use of DBS in the subthalamic nucleus for people with Parkinson\u2019s disease.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Mixing Genetic and Developmental Components > Page 335 \u00b7 Location 7673<\/div>\n
DBS stimulation has produced immediate symptom relief in thousands of such Parkinson\u2019s patients without the side effects that occur with pharmacological therapies.<\/div>\n
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Brain scans of schizophrenic people show activity in their auditory cortex during such auditory hallucinations. This suggests that an internal source in the brain is generating activity in auditory areas that the schizophrenic person cannot distinguish from something she actually hears.<\/div>\n
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\ufffc Nicotine, as from cigarettes, is a nicotinic agonist, and cigarette smoking, as a form of self-medication, is prevalent among people with schizophrenia. Research suggests a specific defect in the alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor as the major molecular cause of schizophrenia.<\/div>\n
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Typical symptoms of OCD include washing excessively (particularly hand washing), repeatedly checking for something undone or missing, and performing everyday activities\u2014such as dining or washing\u2014in a ritualistic way. OCD is also associated with traits such as hoarding, preoccupation with sexual or religious thoughts, and irrational aversions, such as extreme fear of germs.<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Mixing Genetic and Developmental Components > Page 337 \u00b7 Location 7739<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Eating and Drinking for Brain Function > Page 340 \u00b7 Location 7788<\/div>\n
Other dopamine agents include modafinil, L-phenylalanine L-tyrosine, biopterin, and pyridoxal-phosphate.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Eating and Drinking for Brain Function > Page 340 \u00b7 Location 7804<\/div>\n
Caffeine: Commonly<\/div>\n
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and alertness. It has a marginal paradoxical protective effect against Parkinson\u2019s disease, for unknown reasons.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Fixing the Brain with Surgery, Electricity, and Magnetism > Page 343 \u00b7 Location 7864<\/div>\n
Parkinson\u2019s disease the basal ganglia were the original target areas. The assumption<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Fixing the Brain with Surgery, Electricity, and Magnetism > Page 343 \u00b7 Location 7865<\/div>\n
was that artificial stimulation could restore subnormal neural activity from dopamine<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Fixing the Brain with Surgery, Electricity, and Magnetism > Page 343 \u00b7 Location 7869<\/div>\n
how it works, the results of DBS in many patients have been dramatic. Parkinson\u2019s patients who exhibit the typical stooped posture and shuffling gate with the stimulator turned off are able<\/div>\n
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walk and engage in sports almost immediately when the current pulses are turned on.<\/div>\n
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DBS treatments<\/div>\n
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phosphenes<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Fixing the Brain with Surgery, Electricity, and Magnetism > Page 345 \u00b7 Location 7906<\/div>\n
oscillations<\/div>\n
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endorphins (internal pain reduction neurotransmitters)<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Repairing Brain Damage > Page 346 \u00b7 Location 7950<\/div>\n
Stem cells that will release dopamine have been injected into the substantia nigra of Parkinson\u2019s patients with mixed success.<\/div>\n
Part V: The Part of Tens<\/div>\n
Bookmark – The Reticular Formation in the Brainstem > Page 358 \u00b7 Location 8158<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Spinal Reflex > Page 358 \u00b7 Location 8174<\/div>\n
Overriding reflexes is essential to locomotion, which consists of deliberately falling forward (unbalancing) and catching yourself by extending one, then the other leg in a repeated cycle.<\/div>\n
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neural circuitry detects errors between what is \u201cprogrammed\u201d by the frontal lobes for a particular movement and what is actually executed, which depends on variables like loads and uneven ground while walking. It uses error computation to achieve correct sequences in motor behavior based on practice.<\/div>\n
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If you plan to rearrange the furniture in your house, the cerebellum is activated during this planning.<\/div>\n
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central pattern generators (CPGs).<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – The Basal Ganglia Thalamus Loop > Page 363 \u00b7 Location 8268<\/div>\n
The basal ganglia (refer to Chapter 9) are the primary controllers of behavior, using the neocortex to generate alternative motor plans and the cerebellum to carry them out. The basal ganglia receive inputs via the outer nuclei (striatum\u2014caudate and putamen), which project to inner nuclei, mainly the globus pallidus. The output of the basal ganglia is chiefly from these inner nuclei to the thalamus, and it\u2019s primarily inhibitory to areas of the frontal lobe that generate commands for controlling motor behavior. The substantia nigra and subthalamic nuclei perform a crucial modulatory role in this system.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Optogenetics: Controlling Neurons with Light > Page 365 \u00b7 Location 8313<\/div>\n
Optogenetics (refer to Chapter 4) controls neural activity by activating light-sensitive channels in neural membranes. These light-sensitive channels typically come from microbes that have evolved them to control some behavior, such as moving toward or away from light.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation > Page 366 \u00b7 Location 8324<\/div>\n
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are two types of brain stimulation.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Deep Brain Stimulation > Page 369 \u00b7 Location 8391<\/div>\n
Deep brain stimulation was first tried for Parkinson\u2019s disease according to the idea that if the output of a single, small brain nucleus (the substantia nigra) was deficient, perhaps just elevating its output artificially with current pulses that increased neural firing would compensate for its low output. This turned out to work. The results of deep brain stimulation have led to new ideas about how the basal ganglia system works.<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Fluorescence and Confocal Microscopy > Page 370 \u00b7 Location 8411<\/div>\n
microscopy, which is also used in non-living sections, can image living cells in brain slices or even<\/div>\n
Highlight(blue<\/span>) – Tissue Culture and Brain Slices > Page 372 \u00b7 Location 8458<\/div>\n
the locus of a genetic mutation behind a neural dysfunction does not automatically translate into a treatment regime because the function of the protein encoded may be unknown and embedded in a complex regulatory system whose operation is poorly known.<\/div>\n
Index<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Page 373 \u00b7 Location 8469<\/div>\n
Bookmark – Page 385 \u00b7 Location 9506<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Neurobiology For Dummies Amthor, Frank Citation (Chicago Style): Amthor, Frank. Neurobiology For Dummies. Wiley, 2020. Kindle edition. Part I: Getting Started with Neurobiology Highlight(blue) – Chapter 1: Welcome to the World of Neurobiology > Page 7 \u00b7 Location 631 Generally, the human genetic program creates a brain with more neurons than any other animal, allowing … <\/p>\n

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